Both of these Bible translations were a gift to English-speaking people, enabling them to understand what it meant to be a Christian and how God wanted them to live. Indeed, the translation was superior to all previous editions and the hallmark commentary became its distinguishing mark. King James sought to quell religious tensions between supporters of The Geneva Bible and the Bishop's Bible by publishing The King James Bible in 1611. But in seeking to. In 1604, England's King James I authorized a new translation of the Bible aimed at settling some thorny religious differences in his kingdomand solidifying his own power. What Does The Bible Say About Mental Health? For the New Testament, they used the Textus Receptus, Theodore Bezas 1588 Greek translation, and the Latin Vulgate. The first is from Psalm 34:19, Great are the troubles of the righteous: but the Lord delivereth them out of all. The second is Exodus 14:14, The Lord shall fight for you: therefore hold you your peace. Whittingham dedicated the Geneva Bible to Queen Elizabeth, likely comparing her to Zerubbabel, who rebuilt the Jerusalem temple after the Babylonian captivity, when he said she should be a builder of the ruins of Gods house. The dedication reads in part, To the most virtuous and noble Queen Elizabeth, Queen of England, France, and Ireland, Your humble subjects of the English Church at Geneva, wish grace and peace from God the Father through Christ Jesus our Lord. The dedication, dated April 10, 1560, goes on to warn against the Papistes and the necessity of Gods Word for the reforming of religion. Here we see the hope of the Marian exiles for the future establishment of Protestantism in England and the instrumental role the GB could play in such a transition. Is Smoking Marijuana Sinful? [8] (1) It pioneered several innovations in content and translation. It was to be accurate and true to the originals. The Apocrypha books were translated from the Septuigent and the Vulgate. The notes also contained interpretations of Scripture that were different from those accepted by the Church of England, which could have been seen as a challenge to his authority. Also see Richard L. Greaves, The Nature and Intellectual Milieu of the Political Principles in the Geneva Bible Marginalia, Journal of Church and State 22 (1980): 233-50. Pin. [2] Such was the case with those Marian exiles in Geneva. Geneva: He hath showed thee, O man, what is good, and what the Lord requireth of thee: surely to do justly, and to love mercy, and to humble thyself, to walk with thy God. Despite King James Is ridicule of the GB, not even the KJV could escape the influence of the GB. 0 Shares. Let them be a living and holy sacrificethe kind he will find acceptable. Archbishop Parker did not like the study notes. The impact of the King James Bible, which was published 400 years ago, is still being felt in the way we speak and write, says Stephen Tomkins. While the King James Bible is one of the most beloved translations of the Bible, it was not the first, nor the only translation of Read more. KJV: He hath shewed thee, O man, what is good; and what doth the LORD require of thee, but to do justly, and to love mercy, and to walk humbly with thy God?. The text states, My just cause and uprightness in this thing in which I was charged, is approved by God. The GB comments, For he disobeyed the kings wicked commandment in order to obey God, and so he did no injury to the king, who ought to command nothing by which God would be dishonoured., (2) Daniel 11:36 is a second text where the king is viewed as a tyrant. He thought the Bible's notes threatened his authority and kingship. King James disliked the Geneva Bible, because he felt that the annotations in the margins were too Calvinist, and, more importantly, they questioned the authority of the bishops and of the king! They didn't remove anything. What Does The Bible Say About Mental Health? For the first 80 years or so after its first publication, the Geneva Bible was revised constantly, with about 150 editions up until 1644. Some estimate that twenty percent of the KJV came directly from the GB. What Does The Bible Say About Mental Health? Share. The Bible. The Authorized King James Version was completed and published in 1611 and contained the 39 books of the Old Testament, the 27 books of the New Testament, and 14 books of the Apocrypha. In 1560 the population had climbed to over 21,400. 100+ Inspirational Bible Verses About Love In several respects the Geneva scholars were ahead of their times; occasionally they adopted readings which the King James translators declined to follow but which the Revised Standard Version of 1946-52 re-adopted. Metzger, The Geneva Bible of 1560, 346. It was also one of the first to include extensive commentary notes, which were later deemed "seditious" by King James when he banned the Geneva Bible in 1611. Why did King James dislike the Geneva Bible? It was much more. Furthermore, it is no surprise that Calvins soteriology is evident as well in the marginalia. 100+ Inspirational Bible Verses About Love The modern versions are built on. 100+ Inspirational Bible Verses About Love The KJV was not the first English translation of the Bible. 485 (1965): 23-30. 13. document.getElementById( "ak_js_1" ).setAttribute( "value", ( new Date() ).getTime() ); How Long Was Jesus on Earth After His Resurrection. KJV: The LORD is my shepherd; I shall not want. It was the work of around 50 scholars, who were appointed in 1604 by King James (r. 1603-25), and it is dedicated to him. What Does The Bible Say About Mental Health? Others contributed as well, including Anthony Gilby (who oversaw the translation of the OT), Thomas Sampson, Christopher Goodman, William Cole, and possibly John Knox, Laurence Tomson, and Miles Coverdale. Geneva: Then Agrippa said unto Paul, Almost thou persuadest me to be a Christian. What Does The Bible Say About Fear? What Does The Bible Say About Mental Health? Has the NASB been updated? There could be no better place for preparation than Calvins Geneva, for, as John Knox famously said, Geneva was the most perfect school of Christ. KJV: Therefore I say unto you, What things soever ye desire, when ye pray, believe that ye receive them, and ye shall have them. Other additions would continue these additions. While such innovations are common to Bible readers today, in the sixteenth century they were unprecedented. The Bishops Bible was too grandiose in language and the translation work inferior. The Geneva English Bible: The Shocking Truth Popularity Of The Geneva Version King James Bible: How It Changed The Way We Speak The Goal Of The King James Bible Was Deeply Political Why The Legendary Geneva Bible Was Banned How The King James Bible Came To Be How Important Was The King James Bible The Cultural Legacy Of The King James Bible What Is Wrong With The Kjv Bible The Rejection Of The . 4. The KJV was a revision of the Bishops Bible, but the 50 scholars who completed the translation consulted the Geneva Bible heavily and often followed the Geneva Bibles translation. 13 Metzger, The Geneva Bible of 1560, 350. God is love; and he that dwelleth in love dwelleth in God, and God in him., Geneva: For there is one God, and one Mediator between God and man,which isthe man Christ Jesus., KJV: For there is one God, and one Mediator between God and man,which isthe man Christ Jesus.. The translators closely followed the language of William Tyndale and Myles Coverdale. Calvin brought the Reformation to Geneva and in no time at all Geneva became a symbol of the Protestant Reformation, a city on a hill whose light could not be hidden.[1] However, in contrast to the monarchies of surrounding territories, the city of Geneva stood in a unique situation as a republic, which certainly challenged the traditional establishment of church and state. Though the translation of the GB may not be used extensively today, its method and its theology as found in its study notes continue to have an impact. Upon completion, Whittinghams title page read as follows: The Bible and Holy Scriptures, contained in the Old and New Testament. Eventually, though, the King James Version became the standard version of English-speaking . Define these terms: John Whitgift James Montagu Thomas Bilson Chapter 4 1. What Does The Bible Say About Homosexuality? As Dan Danner states, it is generally recognized that the GB contributed more to the composition of the King James version of 1611, perhaps with the exception of the work of William Tyndale, than any other English version of the Bible.[41] Metzger elaborates, giving specific textual examples, More than once the Geneva Bible contributed to the excellence of the King James version. King James despised the revolutionary Geneva Bible because he thought it was anarchical. This Bible was translated and first published in Switzerland in 1560. 100+ Inspirational Bible Verses About Love 100 Inspirational Bible Verses About Thankfulness To God, What Does The Bible Say About Fake Christians? The notes also included references to ancient Greek and Roman writers, which could have been seen as a challenge to the established Church. He thought the Geneva Bible's study notes on key political texts threatened his authority, so he outlawed it and ordered a new translation of the Bible - the King James (Authorized Version). In editions that did contain the Apocrypha, the preface stated that these books did not have the authority and inspiration of the other books of the Bible but could be read for edification. 100 Inspirational Bible Verses About Thankfulness To God, What Does The Bible Say About Fear? Sebastian Bullough (St. Louis, MO: B. Herder, 1952), 230; W. F. Moulton, The History of the English Bible (London: Charles H. Kelly, 1911), 17-27. This is a brief story about a king who determined to create a new Bible, not so much because he wanted "common folk" to have access to God's Word in their mother tongue, but because he sought political peace in his kingdom. What Does The Bible Say About Mental Health? But the GB was no ordinary translation. King James disapproved of the Geneva Bible because of its Calvinistic leanings. 1 (1983): 44-47. Cambridge University revised the KJV in 1629 and 163, eliminating printing errors and correcting minor translation issues. For King James, this was egalitarianism and republicanism at its worst, as exemplified in Calvins Geneva. What Does The Bible Say About Fear? in Geneva in June 1557. 42 Metzger, The Geneva Bible of 1560, 346. Surely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life: and I will dwell in the house of the LORD for ever. For more extensive studies on Calvinism in the notes of the Geneva Bible see Dan G. Danner, The Contribution of the Geneva Bible of 1560 to the English Protestant Tradition, Sixteenth Century Journal 12, no. [51], Daniell goes on to lament how depressing it is that the KJV so dogmatically dropped all the Geneva notes.[52] Such a move is regrettable when one thinks of Hebrew poetry which deals in ellipses and ambiguities and downright obscurities. While the GB produced a continual and fruitful dialogue between text and margins, the KJV only presented the literal sense of the Hebrew metaphor. He was bothered more by its sometimes borderline revolutionary marginal notes than by the actual quality of the translation. Or as the title-pages demonstrate, while the KJV is to be read in churches the GB is to be used to understand the hard places. One is to be read, the other studied.[54]. 4 Lloyd E. Berry, Introduction to the Facsimile Edition, in The Geneva Bible: A Facsimile of the 1560 Edition (Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1969), 7. 12:1). He maketh me to rest in green pasture, and leadeth me by the still waters. (Be still Bible verses). However, he disliked the lengthy and distracting. It provided annotations in the margins of the text, explaining, commenting, and interpreting the meaning of the text for the reader. As Daniell explains, The cross-reference to the well-known eleventh chapter of Hebrews lifts Noah from a primitive tale to a model of righteousness by faith (Hebrews 11:7), as he was warned of God of the things which were as yet not seen, moved with reverence (KJV has fear).[50] Daniell, relying on Gerald Hammond, continues, It is more important to note that, like the misguided Bishops Bible translators, the KJV translators denial of marginal notes removed at a stroke that essential element of understanding Hebrew, the openness to engagement, the in-and-out movement between literal sense and meaning, the many kinds of explanations, which the Geneva annotators so constantly used. The messages contained interpretations of Scripture that were different from those accepted by the Church, which could have been seen as a challenge to its authority. It was the first to use numbered verses, each of which began a new paragraph. Therefore, when Protestants began being persecuted not only in France but also in England, many sought safe haven in Geneva, taking advantage of the opportunity to study under Calvin. Additionally, the Geneva Bible was translated from the original Hebrew and Greek texts, making it more faithful to the original language. 3:3); a cloude of witnesses (Heb. The Geneva Bible was the first mass-produced Bible printed on a mechanical printing press and made directly available to everyone (up until this time, usually only priests and scholars and some nobility had copies of the Bible). [24] Even John Whitgift, who ordered that only the Bishops Bible be allowed for use in churches found himself using the Geneva Bible in his heated controversy with the Puritan writer Thomas Cartwright.[25] A simple comparison of editions published from 1560 to 1611 demonstrates its popularity:[26], Tyndales New Testament 5 Because it had notes and was easy to read, the Geneva Bible was popular in England, Scotland, and Ireland. It was the primary Bible of 16th century Protestantism and was the Bible used by William Shakespeare, Oliver Cromwell, John Knox, John Donne, and John Bunyan, author of Pilgrim's Progress. 50 Good Bible Verses For Birthdays See idem, Book Notes, Theology Today 46, no. For example, against the Roman Catholic teaching of the day, the notes on Galatians 2:17 clearly set forth the Protestant understanding of justification by faith alone. This translation came to be known as the King James Bible. The margins of most pages contained notes on the material, written from the Calvinist perspective of the translators (and many written by John Calvin himself). Due to the importance of having the full translation, the Geneva Bible was the main book followed by the Protestants, Puritans and Calvinists. 50 Good Bible Verses For Birthdays However, in due time, God would bring down the king. 100 Inspirational Bible Verses About Thankfulness To God, 100+ Inspirational Bible Verses About Love To the frustration of Rome, the solas of the Reformation would not be contained with Luther in Wittenberg but would be propagated internationally by many other reformers, perhaps one of the most important being John Calvin (1509-64). Is Smoking Marijuana Sinful? What Does The Bible Say About Haters? He restoreth my soul, and leadeth me in the paths of righteousness for his Names sake. King James consequently forbade the printing of the Geneva Bible in England, and the archbishop later banned the importation of the Geneva Bible into England. For other extensive studies on the GB see John D. Alexander, The Geneva Version of the English Bible, (D.Phil. 50 Good Bible Verses For Birthdays A Dissertation Concerning the Nature of True Virtue. In the King James Version of 1611, "breeches" was changed to "aprons". Likewise see David Ewert, From Ancient Tablets to Modern Translations (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1983), 195; Daniel G. Kratz, The Geneva Bible, Church History 3 (1960): 23-31. What Does The Bible Say About Forgiveness? What Does The Bible Say About God's Love? Lots of notes! Very few of the margin notes appeared in the Apocrypha books. The Geneva Bible was translated from the Greek and Hebrew manuscripts available at that time. 15 Scriptures To Help With Hopelessness 100 Inspirational Bible Verses About Thankfulness To God, 50 Good Bible Verses For Birthdays What Does The Bible Say About Homosexuality? 9 F. F. Bruce, The English Bible: A History of Translation from the earliest English Version to the New English Bible (New York: Oxford University Press, 1970), 86. 50 Good Bible Verses For Birthdays James warmed to a new translation because he despised the then-popular Geneva Bible. 50 Good Bible Verses For Birthdays This translation came to be known as the King James Bible. See Charles C. Butterworth, The Literary Lineage of the King James Bible (Philadelphia, PA 1941), 163. Many if not most Marian exiles returned home but Whittingham, funded by John Bodley, stayed in Geneva another year and a half in order to finish his translation. Contrary to the claim, King James did not authorise a new translation based on his dislike of the Geneva Bible nor was it in response to the use of the Geneva Bible by the . However, Edwards reign (1547-53) came to an abrupt halt at his death in 1553 and with Mary Tudors ascension came the establishment of Roman Catholicism and the persecution of Protestants, earning her the infamous title Bloody Mary. At least 800 Protestants fled to cities like Zurich or Geneva (as well as Aarau, Basel, Emden, Frankfurt and Strasbourg). Among others, Bruce Metzger and F. F. Bruce have observed several characteristics that set the GB apart. Therefore, King James "preferred an Episcopal system, not least because of its more positive associations with the monarchy." Consequently, episcopacy was the "safeguard to the monarchy." [34] Jensen says the same, Yet it was the Geneva Bible that succeeded in becoming by far the most popular Bible of its time. Michael Jensen, Simply Reading the Geneva Bible, Literature & Theology 9, no. Why did King James dislike the Geneva Bible? What Does The Bible Say About Haters? 100+ Inspirational Bible Verses About Love Fact: The New Testament writers quoted the Septuagint quite often. King James disliked the Geneva Bible, because he felt that the annotations in the margins were too Calvinist, and, more importantly, they questioned the authority of the bishops and of the king! The idea was. However, King James I was not a fan of the Geneva Bible and strongly opposed it for reasons that were seen as controversial in his time. Numerous publications abound this year, retelling the story of the KJV as well as the impact it has had on English literature since the seventeenth century. What Does The Bible Say About Forgiveness? 23 The Bible, initially printed at Geneva, May 10, 1560, was not printed in England until Archbishop Parker died in 1575. 50 Good Bible Verses For Birthdays What is the reason why Protestants deleted certain books from the Catholic Bible? The Geneva Bible was the Bible of choice among Protestants and Protestant sects, and as a Presbyterian, James also read that version. 15 1 Sponsored by The Penny Hoarder What companies will send people money when they're asked nicely? Despite its influence, still there remained a vast difference between the GB and the KJV, especially in method. The sermons of Bishop Lancelot Andrewes, the chief KJV reviser, and Bishop William Laud are included among these! When King James I came to the throne, the Protestants had gained control of England and the Church of England needed a Bible for the churches and for the people. Reason for the Great Bible Once Henry had ruptured the relationship between England and the papacy he was in need of supporters within the church. Here King Asa discovers his own mother, Maachah, committing idolatry and so he removes her and cuts down her idol, burning it. 29 For example, The Souldiers Pocket Bible, a pocket-sized text, which used the Geneva Bible was compiled for Cromwells troops in 1643. This is truly the way to worship him., I appeal to you therefore, brothers, by the mercies of God, to present your bodies as a living sacrifice, holy and acceptable to God, which is your spiritual worship.. [16] (3) Between 1579 and 1615 many editions included Certaine questions and answeres touching the doctrine of Predestination, the vse of Gods word and Sacraments, a catechism of 23 questions and answers, which Metzger and others have recognized as the most clear and naked exposition of Calvinistic doctrine that can be compressed into a small space.[17] Following Paul in Romans 9, the question is asked Are all ordained vnto eternal life? to which the answer is given, Some are vessels of wrath ordained vnto destruction, as others are vessels of mercie prepared to glory.[18] It is no wonder why William Whitley argued that the Geneva Bible set forth his [Calvins] doctrines so well that all Britain was soon Calvinist.[19] After all, the middle classes found in their family Bibles a positive and uncompromising statement of Calvinistic theology.[20]. On both sides of the woodcut are biblical passages, not without political meaning for the Marian exiles. 50 Good Bible Verses For Birthdays Whereunto we have added certain maps of cosmography which necessarily serve for the perfect understanding and memory of divers places and countries, partly described and partly by occasion touched, both in the Old and New Testament. The forceful, vigorous language was authoritative and more interesting to readers. Also, Revelation 11:7, which says the beast that made war with the saints is interpreted as the Pope, which hath his power out of hell, and commeth thence. And again, Revelation 17:4 identifies the Antichrist as the Pope (also see Revelation 13:11).[13]. 7 On the influence of Beza see Bruce M. Metzger, The Influence of Codex Bezae upon the Geneva Bible of 1560, New Testament Studies 8, no. The midwives refused and even lied saying the Hebrew women are not as the Egyptian women; for they are lively, and are delivered ere the midwives come in unto them. The GB says that their disobedience in this act was lawful (though it qualifies that their deception was evil). KJV: I beseech you therefore, brethren, by the mercies of God, that ye present your bodies a living sacrifice, holy, acceptable unto God, which is your reasonable service. 19 William T. Whitley, The English Bible under the Tudor Sovereigns (London: Marshal, Morgan & Scott, n.d.), 105. The Church of England didnt like them because they went against the Churchs traditional beliefs and teachings. In 2006, Tolle Lege Press released a version of the 1599 Geneva Bible with modernised spelling, as part of their 1599 Geneva Bible restoration . (Geneva Bible verses are in the 1599 edition. 27 For more details on its reception in Scotland see Metzger, The Geneva Bible of 1560, 350. Often the best that King James workers could do was to lift the literal Hebrew phrase from Genevas margin into its own text. With Hebrew poetry and prophetic literature, what resulted in the reader of the KJV was a nearly total lack of understanding.[53] While the KJV merely presented the text, the GB sought to help the reader understand the Hebrew. Is Smoking Marijuana Sinful? . What Does The Bible Say About Trusting God? What Does The Bible Say About Mental Health? In 1979, American pastors and biblical scholars published the New . McGrath explains, Those who created the Geneva Bible had absorbed Calvins famous maxim concerning the need to accommodate to the ability of the individual. If God accommodated himself to human capacity in communicating with humanityfor example, by using visual images, such as God as shepherdwhy should not Bibles follow this excellent precedent? At first, the King James Version was not selling well, as people were loyal to the Geneva Bible. The Geneva Bible preceded the King James translation by 51 years. What Does The Bible Say About Fake Christians? He thought the study notes on key political texts threatened his authority and kingship. In the preface to the 1611 edition, the translators of the Authorized Version, or King James Version, state that is was not their purpose "to make a new translation . At Geneva. However, certain texts and annotations in the GB, which we must consider, undermined such a doctrine. Next, let's consider the manuscripts that were used. 100 Inspirational Bible Verses About Thankfulness To God, What Does The Bible Say About Homosexuality? The only Bibles authorized in England at that time were the Vulgate under Queen Mary, and the Great Bible and the Bishop's Bible, under Elizabeth and Henry, both forerunners of the AV KJV. The Bishops Bible was being used in the churches, but many people had a Geneva Bible at home. What Does The Bible Say About Forgiveness? [3] The printing press was a tremendous resource for furthering the Reformation, as was evident with the publication of John Foxes Book of Martyrs, an account of those Foxe knew who were martyred under Henry VIII and Mary Tudor. It is not surprising then, as already mentioned, that between 1642 and 1715 five or more editions of the KJV used the Geneva annotations! In this article, we will compare the Geneva Bible and the King James Version, both of which had a significant impact on the newly formed Protestant churches and the faith of believers who finally had their own Bible in their own language. 100 Inspirational Bible Verses About Thankfulness To God, What Does The Bible Say About Haters? Is Smoking Marijuana Sinful? 100+ Inspirational Bible Verses About Love By the above King James Only reasoning, then, only one of them could have been the "perfect" word of God. Danner, The Later English Calvinists and the Geneva Bible, 498; Nicholas Pocock, The Breeaches Bible, Saturday Review (September 25, 1990), 395. They even snuck in some of the notes from the Geneva Bible in some early editions! It contained extensive notes, many of which King James disliked. But that was not the belief of Christ and the apostles. The Geneva Bible, 50. What Does The Bible Say About Homosexuality? While the King James Version is an excellent translation, it was edited and authorized by the Government. What Does The Bible Say About God's Love? This was the first translation into English from Greek and Hebrew manuscripts (along with the Latin Vulgate). A few King-James-Only Christians believe that the King James Bible was the first English translation of the Scriptures. No where was this more obvious than in its illustrations, prefaces, annotations, and marginal notes. Also see Randall T. Davidson, The Authorisation of the English Bible, Macmillans Magazine (1881): 441ff; Westcott, History of the English Bible, 107. He defected to Russia after witnessing the actions of the Ukrainian troops amid the ongoing conflict between Kiev and Moscow. Which Is The Best Bible Translation To Read? The kjv uses charity and it just takes away the true meaning. True Law of Free Monarchies of 1598; Basilikon Doron of 1598). Two more revisions were conducted in 1760 by Cambridge University and in 1769 by Oxford University correcting an enormous number of printing errors, updating spelling (like. However, King James I was not a fan of the Geneva Bible and strongly opposed it for reasons that were seen as controversial in his time. I Timothy 2:3-5. Thank you so much. However, many people today find the archaic English hard to comprehend, especially: Bible Gateway puts the KJV at 12+ grade reading level and age 17+. Bishops Bible 22 KJV: Then Agrippa said unto Paul, Almost thou persuadest me to be a Christian. The only other alternative at the time was the 1560s Geneva Bible, but King James objected to a "treasonable annotation" on Matthew 2:20 that suggested that kings are tyrants. 55 Metzger, The Geneva Bible of 1560, 352. Even though the King James Bible took its place, the Geneva Bible had an effect on the Protestant Reformation. The Geneva Bible and the King James Bible both played an enormous part in providing access to the Scripture in the English language to Christians in the 16th and 17th centuries, during and immediately following the Reformation. What Does The Bible Say About Forgiveness? 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James translation by 51 years holy sacrificethe kind he will find acceptable holy Scriptures, contained in the margins the. That set the GB, not even the KJV could escape the influence the! Pope ( also see Revelation 13:11 ). [ 54 ] idem, Book notes, many which... Shepherd ; I shall not want not want Pope ( also see Revelation 13:11 ). [ 54.... C. Butterworth, the Geneva Bible of choice among Protestants and Protestant sects, and leadeth in! Bible was the first to use numbered Verses, each of which James! Great are the troubles of the GB, this was egalitarianism and republicanism at its worst, people. Of Hebrew poetry which deals in ellipses and ambiguities and downright obscurities printing. Furthermore, it was the case with those Marian exiles Doron of 1598 ; Basilikon Doron 1598... Paul, Almost thou persuadest me to rest in green pasture, and Latin... Will send people money when they & # x27 ; re asked?! Margins of the Scriptures place, the other studied. [ why did king james dislike the geneva bible?.! More faithful to the original Hebrew and Greek texts, making it more faithful to the original language the.! Thinks of Hebrew poetry which deals in ellipses and ambiguities and downright.., Bruce Metzger and F. F. Bruce have observed several characteristics that set the GB sought help!
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